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Билеты для сдачи кандидатского минимума по английскому языку аспирантам специальностей правовед, бухгалтер, экономист, философ
(Скачать оригинал реферата)аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №1 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes Ideal-types are conceptual abstractions that we employ in trying to get to grips with the complexities of the social world. Weber properly points out that we cannot grasp social phenomena in their totality. Patterns of behaviour and institutional forms like capitalism, or Protestantism, or bureaucracy, are each composed of a large number of interconnected elements, both normative and structural. In order to comprehend any such institution or social formation it is necessary to reduce it to its core components. We do this by singling out and accentuating the central or basic features of the institution in question and suppressing or downgrading those features that could be considered marginal to it. This means that our ideal-type of capitalism, or the bourgeois revolution, or whatever, is unlikely to be an accurate representation of the real thing. It is almost bound to be a somewhat slanted or exaggerated version rather in the way that a cartoonist's caricature is an exaggerated version of a still recognizable face. Thus, an ideal-type of the bourgeois revolution will not conform exactly to the features of any one particular bourgeois revolution; rather, it will be a kind of distillation of the principal features that are characteristic of these revolution in general: in other words, ideal-types only approximate to social reality, they do not and cannot mirror it faithfully. Situations change Sometimes, the experience of other people can furnish us with facts we need, but we must remember that situation is not situation, and what works or does not work in one place may turn out differently somewhere else - or at another time. We must learn to observe what particular kinds of mistakes in thinking we make most often. Is it from not seeking the advice of others? Or is it from not using adequately our own experiences and our own ideas? Is it from not testing our ideas in a small way before relying upon them in a large way? Each one of us must act as his own judge in finding out his own particular weakness in thinking. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes To: Ms Rodoula Ath. ZICCI Deputy Minister of National Economy 28 January 2000 Dear Ms Zicci Herewith I am glad to write in accordance with my forthcoming visit to Greece as a participant to ASIA FORUM 2000 which is to be held in Thesalloniki on 7-8 February. I was a great pleasure to meet you during my visit to Athens in July. Taking the chance of going to Greece I would greatly appreciate if you could find a few minutes in your business schedule and meet me and discuss the issues of mutual interest. Thank you in advance for your kind cooperation and assistance. Looking forward to meeting you, I remain Sincerely yours Gennady Bogachev Deputy Director Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №2 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes The point that Weber is touching upon here is that it is illusory to imagine that we can somehow capture the 'real essence' of social reality. Social reality does not possess a real essence because it is always capable of being constructed or represented in various different ways. What counts as social reality depends pretty much upon the conceptual apparatus through which we view it in the first place. Weber's stance on this is, again, noticeably different from that of Marx and Durkheim. Marx was inclined to distinguish between the mere appearances of reality and the essence of reality. Surface reality was never quite the same as the deeper, underlying reality. Hence his celebrated dictum that "…all science would be superfluous if the outward appearance and the essence of tilings directly coincided." As far as Marx is concerned there is some ultimate and irreducible level of reality that is not a mere artefact of our own conceptual making. Although there might be different ways of depicting capitalism, the state, and so forth, these different constructs were certainly not to be granted equal validity. There were false constructions and true constructions, bourgeois or ideological conceptions and scientific conceptions. Some thoughts on creativity Any individual can acquire the tools of a trade. As he learns to use these tools he becomes technically competent. It is, however, only when he contributes of himself that the individual becomes more than a technician. This giving of oneself is essentially what we mean by creativity. The ability to create exists in every individual in varying degree and according to inclination. The domains where one may exert his effort are sufficiently varied to offer each individual an opportunity to exhibit originality. The growth of mental potentialities through experimentation with the creative process broadens the individual's capacity of original contribution. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes Sadovaya'Kudrinskaya str. Russian Federation Letter of Invitation Dear Minister Thank you for your interest to meet representatives of the Brandenburg State Government, especially Prime Minister Dr. Manfred Stoipe, during your stay in the Federal Republic of Germany from April 25"' to April 26"' 2000. It is my pleasure to invite you to the state of Brandenburg. A copy of your request has been.mailed to the office of the Prime Minister for coordinating purposes. Sincerely yours Dr. Wolfgang FьrniЯ Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №3 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes Durkheim's view is broadly similar. In his analysis of collective behaviour he is not proposing one possible interpretation among others; he is claiming to reveal the very stuff of social life. In reducing religion to its 'elementary forms' he is seeking to lay bare the substance of supernatural belief, the substance that is found in all religions from the simplest to the most complex. Durkheim's standard working assumption is that the quintessential nature of any social phenomenon can be identified by showing what is common to its various manifestations. The task is to uncover what is universal to all religions, to all systems of morality, to all legal institutions, and so on. What is it that apparently disparate things actually share in common? For Durkheim the point of the exercise is not to set up ideal-type constructs that are only weak approximations of social reality, but to penetrate to the fundamental core of reality. Seen from Weber's angle, even if it were possible to pinpoint some quintessential substance of religion or morality or law, this would still leave all the interesting questions unanswered. In the case of religion, for example, it would still be necessary to show how the doctrinal expressions of the sacred varied from one religion to another. For Durkheim, "The details of dogmas and rites are secondary". Miracles Do Happen G. K. Chesterton The most incredible thing about miracles is that they happen. A few clouds in heaven do come together into the staring shape of one human eye. A tree does stand up in the landscape of a doubtful journey in the exact and elaborate shape of a note of interrogation. I have seen both these things myself within the last few days. Nelson does die in the instant of victory; and a man named Williams does quite accidentally murder a man named Williamson; it sounds like a sort of infanticide. In short, there is in life an element of elfin coincidence which people reckoning on the prosaic way perpetually miss. As it has been well expressed in the paradox of Рое, wisdom should reckon on the unforeseen. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes To: Mr Kim-nee LEE Minister of Trade Ministry of Trade and Industry 5 July 2000 Dear Mr Lee Herewith we are informing you that on 7-8 September, 2000 an International Conference "New Prospects of scientific and technological and production cooperation of Russia with foreign states" is to be held in Nizhny Novgorod. To participate in the forthcoming Conference we are glad to invite a representative from your Ministry and two persons representing business circles. The working languages of the Conference are Russian, German and English. For further information please contact Ms Golovina (tel.: 456 899 01) Looking forward for your prompt reply, I remain Sincerely yours, Vladimir Yugin Minister Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №4 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes Whatever the content of the ideal-type ... it has only one function in an empirical investigation. Its function is the comparison with empirical reality in order to establish its divergencies or similarities . . . and to understand and explain them causally. However, Weber never really makes clear what kind of explanatory pay-off this procedure actually yields. Merely to show that there is indeed a lack of correspondence between ideal-type and empirical reality is not a discovery guaranteed to set the pulse racing. In the first place, there is almost bound to be such lack of fit, given the way that ideal-types are constructed. If we are required to select a few key components from among the possible range of components, and to give these what Weber calls a "one- sided accentuation", then it follows that almost any empirical case will diverge from the pure type. Moreover, it is by no means obvious what possible causal inferences could be drawn from this fact. Indeed, the very notion of causality seems out of place here. Any divergences between ideal- type and reality are a direct function of the manner in which the ideal- type was originally constructed. Had we chosen to select and emphasize a different set of elements we should have discovered a different set of discrepancies. How could we be sure that the discrepancies we found were not 'caused' simply by the sloppiness of our original construct? Material research Material research is not new, but the interdisciplinary aspects of materials research now are receiving considerable emphasis. It has been only since chemists, physicists, metallurgists, ceramicists, polymer chemists, and other scientists began studying the detailed structure and properties of materials that the fundamental relationships underlying basic materials phenomena have begun to be understood. It was not until recently that it has become increasingly evident that the rapid exploitation of new discoveries and their incorporation into the technology depends largely on the combined effects of research scientists and engineers drawn from several different disciplines. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes Sadovaya'Kudrinskaya str. Russian Federation Letter of Invitation Dear Minister Thank you for your interest to meet representatives of the Brandenburg State Government, especially Prime Minister Dr. Manfred Stoipe, during your stay in the Federal Republic of Germany from April 25"' to April 26"' 2000. It is my pleasure to invite you to the state of Brandenburg. A copy of your request has been.mailed to the office of the Prime Minister for coordinating purposes. Sincerely yours Dr. Wolfgang FьrniЯ Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №5 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes What counts as a social fact is very much determined by the moral spectacles through which we view the world. Weber is scathingly dismissive of those theorists who urge us to evacuate our minds of all presuppositions in order that we might perceive social reality in all its purity. This was a doctrine that even Durkheim, of all people, occasionally espoused. In his own treatise on method, Durkheim says that when investigating social life "All preconceptions must be eradicated. [This is] ... the basis of all scientific method." His repeated emphasis on the need to treat social facts as 'things' also implies a sturdy, no-nonsense approach to the problem. For Weber, on the other hand, since the eradication of all preconceptions was not humanly possible, the social construction of facts was extremely problematic. Because social facts only existed by virtue of the concepts employed to define and organise them, we could in effect bring new facts into being and dispose of others simply by altering our conceptual frame of reference. Entities like social classes, for example, could be abolished at a single conceptual stroke. Now you see them, now you don't. Weber's insistence that all theoretical constructs are shot through with biases of one kind or another is not easy to reconcile with the explanatory claims he makes on behalf of ideal-types. The overwhelming problems of today are forcing the disciplines to seek advice from one another. Not only does the blending of various disciplines result in enhanced research, but modern materials systems themselves often are created from the integration of two or more materials. These systems do result in new materials having properties not previously available. It is the lack of materials that are adequate to meet the needs imposed on them that many of the holding problems in our technological development stem from. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes July 18,2000 Dear Mr. Petrov I would like to inform you that I left my position as Minister of International Trade and Industry on July 4. Mr. Hiranuma has been appointed as my successor. I hope that you will accord him the same goodwill and assistance you have granted me. Please accept my best wishes. Respectfully yours, Takashi Fukaya Ministry of International Trade and Industry Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №6 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes Suppose, for example, we wished to construct an ideal type of 'democracy'. One possibility would be to highlight features such as free elections, competing political parties, legal right of opposition, the separation of powers, and the guarantee of civil liberties. Using this as our ideal-type of democracy, we would find that communist or socialist systems diverged considerably from it. Western political systems, by contrast, would show a much closer approximation to it. On that basis, we could conclude that western capitalist systems were more democratic than socialist systems. However, it would be quite feasible to construct an ideal-type of democracy that gave one-sided emphasis to a different set of criteria. The key features could be regarded as the absence of a property-owning or exploiting class, and the absence of those gross inequalities of wealth that effectively concentrate power in the hands of the few at the expense of the many, notwithstanding the latter's purely formal liberties and rights. Measured against this conceptual yardstick, western capitalist states would tend to show greater divergence from the pure type than many socialist states. Socialist states could thus be judged more democratic. Because both constructs are morally slanted, and inevitably so, it is hard to see how either of them could claim explanatory superiority over the other. This is the problem with all ideal-types. Design for decision Throughout this book I must have been critical of people who produce beautiful thoughts with little or no data behind them. Some readers may have felt that the decision-maker is a cold-hearted, even grim, method of making decisions. These readers might admit that a machine may be all right for making the scientific decisions or even commercial decisions, but they may have felt that Statistical Decision had no place in their world, that it is meaningless insofar as personal, governmental, or international decisions are concerned. I disagree with this point of view. I think that Statistical Decision must have played a useful role in a wider class of decisions which have a direct influence on all of us. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes Dear Mrs. Fonaryova: The 37th World Advertising Congress, "London 2000", will be held in London from 6 June through 9 June. This biennial Congress, is very the traditional gathering place of top professionals. We believe that your participation in this event of world importance will be important. Considering your great contribution to the development of the Russian advertising business, we are confident that your contacts with leaders of the advertising industry from around the world will have a positive effect on the further development of the advertising market in Russia. Sincerely, Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №7 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes It is at least arguable that ideal-types tell us less about social reality than about the inbuilt preconceptions of the investigator. Weber virtually says this much himself. To pit one version of reality against another involves, ultimately, a conflict of moralities. It must be recognized that general views of life and the universe can never be the products of increasing empirical knowledge, and that the highest ideals, which move us most forcefully, are always formed only in the struggle with other ideals which are just as sacred to others as ours are to us. This being the case, Weber would not seem to be the most likely candidate to champion the cause of 'value-free' social theory. How could sociology ever attain neutrality if its operational tools were saturated with the observer's own values and preconceptions? Given his views on the status of knowledge as an inescapably social and moral construct, it is at first blush puzzling that Weber should have raised such loud and insistent demands for the exclusion of value-judgements from sociological observations. The puzzle is only partly resolved when it becomes apparent that Weber's demands on this score were rather modest and limited in scope. All he really asked was that scholars should refrain from openly proclaiming their personal views on matters of social fact. I certainly do not consider Statistical Decision to be a panacea. It is one method among many methods of reaching decisions. It is not necessarily the best method; there are situations in which intuitive procedures lead to more effective decisions than any existing Decision-Maker. In fact, I think that most people must have already used many of the principles in making their decisions. You may have felt that such concepts as mathematical expectations were new and unfamiliar. However, I am sure that you have had to make decisions on the basis of expectations, when you have had to combine probabilities and desirabilities (though you may not have used these names). Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes To: Mr Takashi KOEZUKA Deputy Secretary General Re: 10th Anniversary of Antimonopoly Bodies. 15 August 2000 Dear Mr KOEZUKA We have the pleasure to invite you to participate in the International Conference "10th Anniversary of Antimonopoly Bodies.". This high-level International Conference will take place in Moscow, 18-19 October 2000. It will host participants from foreign and international organizations, governmental, academic and business circles for discussion of crucial problems of competition policy and competition law. The working languages of the Conference are Russian and English. For further details please contact Ms Johnston (tel.: 456 899 01) Joe Brandton Vice-Minister Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №8 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes The question Weber never really faced up to was whether ethical neutrality could be violated unwittingly, despite the sociologist's willingness to abstain from openly proclaiming his own views. His belief in the capacity of social scientists to "distinguish between empirical knowledge and value judgements" is not dissimilar to the belief of newspaper editors in their capacity to distinguish between news and comment. In presenting the news they stick scrupulously to the facts, recording events without bias or favour. Judgement on the facts is reserved for the editorial columns. However, there now appears to be a small army of sociologists — the 'media theorists' — whose principal activity is to pour cold water on this notion. They tell us that what counts as 'news' is in fact the end product of a very selective social process. In recording some events and suppressing others, as well as in the moral vocabulary employed in the manufacture of news, certain biases and preconceptions are quietly at work. What purports to be an impartial recitation of factual events is thus a thoroughly loaded presentation. The biases may operate in a more subtle and subterranean fashion than they do in the case of editorial comment, but that makes them all the more effective. Only God knows all So far as I know, no human being knows all about anything. Can you think of anything about which your knowledge is complete? Large or small, old or new. Can you answer every question about an automobile or a grain of sand, a pencil or an inch of thread, or a human being? Suppose you wanted to devote your lifetime to the study of a single lead pencil. Could you learn all about it? You might pick out a nice yellow one with a rubber eraser. You could then sit down and try to describe it as thoroughly as possible, giving exact measurements and telling all you could about its construction and its uses. But to know everything about the pencil, you would have to learn about the wood and the individual tree from which it was made. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes TO: Ms Klery STAVRAKAKIS Director Organization of Small and Medium Sized Enterprises 5 February 2000 Dear Ms Stavrakakis Herewith we are informing you that Mr Bogachev, Deputy Minister, who is a participant to the AZ1A FORUM 2000 in Thesallomki on February 7-8, will be in Athens on February 9 in the afternoon. Taking the chance of being in Athens he would greatly appreciate if you could meet so as to discuss issues of mutual interest. Please contact Mr Filimonov so as to arrange the meeting. I thank you in advance for your kind cooperation. Sincerely yours Vladimir Egorov Head, Department for International Relations Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №9 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes Instead of bureaucratic impartiality . . . based on the abstract validity of one objective law for all ... the opposite principle prevails. Practically everything depends explicitly upon personal considerations: upon the attitude toward the concrete applicant and his concrete request and upon purely personal connections, favours, promises and privileges. Weber contrasts patrimonialism not only with bureaucracy but with another important sub-type of traditional domination — feudalism. Feudalism differed from patrimonialism in that the relationship between a lord and his vassals was a freely contractual one. The vassal swore fealty to his Lord and was no mere dependent. In addition, "Vassalage does not diminish the honour and status of the vassal; on the contrary, it can augment his honour ...". The vassal identifies his fortune with that of his lord, and in the glory of his master he sees the reflection of himself. Most importantly, the vassal's claim to legitimacy vis-a-vis his own local subjects and dependents flowed directly from the legitimacy of the feudal lord. The fact that the lord-vassal relationship was a reciprocal and contractual affair meant that rights and obligations were far more formalized under feudalism than under patrimonialism. In order to assure that the research results are carried out as intended, it is necessary to develop a detailed plan for their implementation. This need is generally acknowledged where the action ultimately to be taken is to be performed by a computer. In such a situation the researcher recognizes his responsibility for developing a program for the computer. What is not so well recognized is that almost as detailed a program is required for human operators. It is necessary to specify exactly who is to do what, when they are to do it, and how. The who and when can normally be shown on a flow chart which indicates the way that the relevant operations are to be conducted. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes 18 December 1998 Minister Khodirev Dear Minister, I am writing today to invite you to our 9th International Conference on Competition, which will be held on 10 and 11 May 1999 at the Hotel Intercontinental Berlin. The subject of the 9th International Conference on Competition is: Mega-mergers I would be very pleased to welcome you to Berlin as a participant at our 9th International Conference on Competition. A simultaneous translation service will be available in German, English and French. Yours sincerely, Wolf President. Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis аспирантура (канд. экз.) Экзаменационный билет (на 2 листах) по дисциплине английский язык (специальность: онтология и теория познания) БИЛЕТ №10 Task I. Translate from English into Russian in writing using a dictionary. Your time is 45 minutes What counts as a social fact is very much determined by the moral spectacles through which we view the world. Weber is scathingly dismissive of those theorists who urge us to evacuate our minds of all presuppositions in order that we might perceive social reality in all its purity. This was a doctrine that even Durkheim, of all people, occasionally espoused. In his own treatise on method, Durkheim says that when investigating social life "All preconceptions must be eradicated. [This is] ... the basis of all scientific method." His repeated emphasis on the need to treat social facts as 'things' also implies a sturdy, no-nonsense approach to the problem. For Weber, on the other hand, since the eradication of all preconceptions was not humanly possible, the social construction of facts was extremely problematic. Because social facts only existed by virtue of the concepts employed to define and organise them, we could in effect bring new facts into being and dispose of others simply by altering our conceptual frame of reference. Entities like social classes, for example, could be abolished at a single conceptual stroke. Now you see them, now you don't. Weber's insistence that all theoretical constructs are shot through with biases of one kind or another is not easy to reconcile with the explanatory claims he makes on behalf of ideal-types. The overwhelming problems of today are forcing the disciplines to seek advice from one another. Not only does the blending of various disciplines result in enhanced research, but modern materials systems themselves often are created from the integration of two or more materials. These systems do result in new materials having properties not previously available. It is the lack of materials that are adequate to meet the needs imposed on them that many of the holding problems in our technological development stem from. Task II. Translate the letter from English into Russian without a dictionary. Your time is 5-7 minutes February 25, 2000 Mr. Alexander President MICEX Moscow RUSSIA Dear Mr. Zakharov: Please find enclosed the draft Joint Statement on Technical Assistance which I received yesterday from the U.S. Trading Commission. We understand that your office will undertake to forward this document to Chairman Parmenkov. If the Russian Party finds the proposal acceptable, we should notify Ms. Corcoran of that fact. We look forward to your future communications on this matter. Best regards. Sincerely, Jeffrey A. Burt Task III. Conversation on the topic of your thesis
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